High-Speed Exposure in Football, Part 2: Developing Speed in the Healthy Player
The first part of this series described high-speed exposure as a component of hamstring preparation, with an emphasis on injury risk and return to play. The same exposure is also the means through which speed is developed, which may explain why sprinting has been described as both a risk and a protective stimulus in football (Edouard et al., 2019). In a healthy player the question changes. The aim becomes improving the qualities that determine how fast the player accelerates and how high a velocity can be reached, in a calendar with limited time for dedicated sessions.
Speed development in football is often approached through general conditioning, small-sided games or gym work, with match play assumed to provide the rest. The data reviewed here suggest that match play provides less high-speed exposure than commonly assumed, that adaptations to sprint training are fairly specific to the way sprinting is practised, and that the choice among training methods matters less than ensuring that sprinting is performed regularly, at the right intensity and with adequate recovery. This second part sets out the theoretical basis, the evidence on training methods and a progression that can be adapted to different squads.
What Limits Speed in Football Players
Sprint performance can be described through the force-velocity relationship obtained during acceleration, in which the capacity to produce horizontal force at low velocity (F0), the theoretical maximal velocity (V0) and the maximal power are the main descriptors. Horizontal ground reaction force, and particularly the ability to orient the resultant force forward, is a major determinant of acceleration performance, and the hip extensors and hamstrings contribute substantially to it (Morin et al., 2015). Maximal velocity adds a second requirement, since contact times shorten and the limb must be repositioned rapidly in swing, with considerable demand on the hamstrings in late swing (Schache et al., 2010). A player can therefore be limited by force production, by the ability to express it at high velocity, or by both, and the training emphasis differs accordingly.
Football places these qualities in a particular context. Most sprints are short and begin from a variety of starting speeds, which makes early acceleration and the transition into higher speeds particularly important. Near-maximal speed also occurs and is tactically important in transitions and runs in behind, but it occurs infrequently. In 35 elite players followed over four seasons, runs above 90% of maximal sprinting speed did not occur at all in 35% of matches for attackers and 65% for midfielders, and three or more such runs in a match were observed in only 2 to 11% of matches depending on position (Buchheit et al., 2021). The authors concluded that exposure to these speeds is low in elite football and depends on context, position and player profile, so that match play alone may be insufficient to maintain or develop the top end of the speed range.
Seasonal data support this. In 21 first-division Spanish players tested six times across a season, with no sprint training beyond that included in football training, horizontal force and maximal power were higher in the mid-season tests than in the two preseasons, and the authors suggested that force-velocity variables, F0 more than V0, may be compromised toward the end of a season when specific sprint stimuli are not applied systematically (Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2022). Speed in healthy players therefore does not seem to be a quality that is acquired once and then retained, and its expression depends on continued exposure.
Haugen and colleagues (2019) integrated scientific and best-practice literature from sprint training and described a polarised distribution of intensity, with sprinting at 95% or more of maximal velocity to improve performance and running below roughly 70% to facilitate recovery. Most of the sprint studies they reviewed concern young team-sport athletes performing brief maximal efforts, whereas elite sprinters work across a wider range of distances, intensities and recoveries. Applying their recommendations to footballers involves some extrapolation, and volumes in particular require scaling to the demands of the match schedule.
Specificity of adaptation provides a further consideration. In 19 U16 players matched for session volume, six weeks of linear sprint training improved linear sprint performance, maximal theoretical velocity and power, whereas curvilinear training produced larger changes in curved sprinting, and the authors concluded that the two methods generated trajectory-specific adaptations (Solleiro-Duran et al., 2025). What is gained depends on the form in which sprinting is practised, and since players run straight, on curves and after changes of direction, a mixture of these forms may be useful.
"A player can therefore be limited by force production, by the ability to express it at high velocity, or by both, and the training emphasis differs accordingly."
Training Methods
Unresisted sprinting remains the reference method. Meta-analytic data on resisted and assisted sprinting indicate that these methods do not produce larger changes than normal sprinting in 20 m times, kinematics or maximal velocity. Resisted sprinting is associated with improvements in 10 m acceleration, combined uphill and downhill sprinting appears effective for maximal velocity, and assisted sprinting appears most effective for step frequency (Myrvang and van den Tillaar, 2024). In young soccer players, sled and vest resistance reduced sprint times without being superior to unresisted sprint training (Fernández-Galván et al., 2022). A study in professional players reported that heavy sled training could assist sprint improvements without adverse changes in sagittal plane kinematics, and that the initial force-velocity profile of each player may help to predict the response (Lahti et al., 2020).
These findings suggest that the method matters less than the presence of regular, high-quality sprint exposure, and that resisted and assisted variants can be used for variety or to target a specific phase of the sprint. Hamstring-emphasised training that included sprinting exercises has also been examined for its effects on strength, sprint performance and horizontal mechanical properties in footballers (Mendiguchia et al., 2015), which suggests that strength work and sprinting contribute jointly.
In practical terms, sprinting itself is the central stimulus, with strength and plyometric training supporting the qualities that limit it (Haugen et al., 2019). Staff with limited time can therefore prioritise a few well-executed sprint repetitions over a large number of different drills. In applied work this often means that the first decision is where sprinting fits in the week, and the choice of sled, vest or free running comes afterwards. A squad that sprints with good quality every week using simple methods is likely to progress more than one that uses many tools irregularly.
A Progression for the Healthy Player
The progression below has four components, which can be sequenced across a preseason and then maintained. The volume of each is adapted to the squad, the level and the player's history.
The first component is acceleration. Short sprints of 10 to 30 m from standing and rolling starts, performed with full effort and enough recovery to preserve quality, address the force production that determines the early part of a run. Haugen and colleagues (2019) described accelerations of 10 to 50 m with recoveries of two minutes in younger or less trained athletes and up to seven minutes in elite sprinters, with total session volumes of 100 to 300 m. In football, a session of four to eight repetitions with two to three minutes of recovery is a commonly used range, and the quality of the repetition (posture, shin angles, intent) determines when to stop. Starting positions can be varied, for example from a split stance, a lying position or a low jog, so that the same quality is trained in contexts closer to the match. Sled loads that reduce velocity by modest amounts can be used as a variation in this block. Heavy loads have been associated with early acceleration improvements (Lahti et al., 2020), and a larger velocity decrement is best reserved for players with the relevant capacity and for the preseason.
The second component is maximal velocity. Flying sprints with a build-up of 20 to 30 m followed by a distance of 10 to 30 m at the highest speed reached allow players to reach 95% or more of maximal velocity with modest volume (Myrvang and van den Tillaar, 2024). Starting at around 85 to 90% in the first weeks and building to maximal efforts makes the transition more gradual for players who have not sprinted at maximal velocity in some time. Each player's maximal speed is measured and updated, and a monitoring device records the percentage reached, so that exposure at the top of the range can be confirmed. Three to five repetitions with full recovery per session often suffice as a starting dose, and the session ends when speed begins to drop, which for most players happens before fatigue is obvious.
The third component is variety in the form of sprinting. Curvilinear runs, sprints after a turn or a backward start, and runs that begin from a jog or a lateral movement reproduce the contexts in which players run in matches, and the specificity data cited above suggest that they contribute to the adaptation (Solleiro-Duran et al., 2025). Assisted or downhill runs of small gradient may supply an additional stimulus for maximal velocity, with the caveat that evidence is limited and that technique should be monitored when running at speeds above what the player produces unaided (Myrvang and van den Tillaar, 2024).
The fourth component is embedding high-speed running in tasks that resemble the game. Large-sided games and tasks with long transitions on a full-length pitch can raise exposure to high speed, although the number of near-maximal runs they produce varies and requires verification with tracking data. These tasks transfer the speed attained in isolated sprints to decision-making contexts and are best considered a complement to dedicated sprinting.
Speed Work Across the Week and the Season
Placement in the microcycle follows from recovery and from the aims of the session. Haugen and colleagues (2019) noted that many practitioners schedule strength work the day after sprint-specific training, since soreness interferes with sprint quality. In a football week, maximal-speed exposure about two days before the match has been associated with fewer match hamstring injuries in elite clubs (Buchheit et al., 2023), and it suits a session that is neither fatigued by the previous match nor so close to the next that recovery is compromised. Acceleration work can be placed earlier in the week, when players are fresher and the session can accommodate longer recoveries, and heavier resisted work is generally positioned away from the match.
A weekly structure for a squad with one match per week can be assembled from these elements. Acceleration work is placed on the third day after the match, when players have recovered from the fixture and tactical content is still moderate. Flying sprints take place two days before the next match, usually after the warm-up and before the tactical session, so that the players are fresh and the repetitions are not displaced by other content. Game-embedded high-speed running is then provided by the larger-format games already present in the week, and tracking data show whether those tasks have produced the intended number of runs at or above 90% of maximal speed. When a second match falls within the week, the flying sprints can be replaced by a shorter exposure of two or three repetitions, since the match itself will have contributed.
Players with limited match minutes require specific attention, since non-starters and players returning from absence may accumulate little high-speed exposure and often train sprinting on additional days. Players with congested schedules may obtain enough exposure from matches, and the dedicated dose can then be reduced.
Across the season, a preseason emphasis on building acceleration and maximal velocity capacity, followed by maintenance at lower volumes, seems reasonable in light of the seasonal changes in force-velocity variables (Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2022). Maintenance includes a minimum of one dedicated exposure per week in most squads, and sessions that are missed are not made up by raising the next one far above the usual dose, in line with the injury data on sudden increases (Duhig et al., 2016).
"Sprinting itself is the central stimulus, with strength and plyometric training supporting the qualities that limit it."
Monitoring and Individualisation
Individualisation can be built on three measurements. Maximal sprinting speed, obtained from radar, laser or GPS, defines relative exposure. Acceleration capacity, assessed through force-velocity profiling or simple split times over 5 and 10 m, indicates whether a player's profile is more force-oriented or velocity-oriented and which quality may be limiting (Lahti et al., 2020). Exposure records, such as the number of runs above 90 and 95% of maximal speed per week, show whether a player is receiving the intended stimulus. Position and age affect all three, and thresholds used for one player may not be appropriate for another.
Technique can be monitored as well. Posture, shin angle at touchdown and the quality of the late swing are inexpensive observations that help in deciding whether to continue a session. Sprint mechanics have been linked to injury in elite male footballers (Bramah et al., 2025), so technical observation informs both performance and risk. A short video clip from the side, taken once every few weeks, is often sufficient to follow changes in these variables across a season.
Age and training history also influence the starting point. Younger players and those with limited sprint experience tend to improve quickly with modest volumes, and their programme can concentrate on technique and acceleration before progressing to maximal velocity. Experienced players with a high sprint capacity usually need a more precise dose, because gains are smaller and the cost of an excessive session is greater. In both cases, retesting maximal speed and a short sprint every six to eight weeks gives a reference for deciding whether the programme should be maintained or adjusted.
Conclusion
Speed in the healthy footballer appears to depend on repeated exposure to high-quality sprinting, because match play provides little exposure at the top of the speed range and force-velocity variables may decline when specific stimuli are absent. The evidence does not identify a single superior method, as resisted, assisted and unresisted sprinting produce similar longer-term changes, and adaptations are specific to the form of sprinting practised. A progression that combines acceleration, flying sprints, varied trajectories and game-embedded high-speed running, placed in the microcycle with attention to recovery and individual maximal speed, follows from these data. The programme that develops speed largely overlaps with the one that prepares the hamstrings, and treating the two aims together may simplify planning when time is limited.
---
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: Is match play sufficient to develop speed in professional footballers?
Evidence suggests that it is usually not sufficient. Near-maximal runs are infrequent in elite matches, and in many matches players do not reach 90% of their maximal sprinting speed at all (Buchheit et al., 2021). Force-velocity variables may also decline toward the end of a season without specific sprint stimuli (Jiménez-Reyes et al., 2022). Dedicated exposure is therefore a reasonable complement, with the dose depending on the player's match minutes.
Q: Are sled and resisted sprints better than free sprinting?
Current meta-analyses do not show superiority over unresisted sprinting for sprint performance in team-sport players, although resisted sprinting appears to improve early acceleration (Fernández-Galván et al., 2022; Myrvang and van den Tillaar, 2024). Heavy sled work has been used successfully in professional players, with the force-velocity profile informing the expected response (Lahti et al., 2020). Resisted sprints may therefore be used as a variation, and free sprinting remains the base.
Q: How much maximal-velocity work is needed in a week?
No dose has been established for footballers. Data from elite clubs indicate that regular exposure above 95% of maximal speed is associated with lower injury risk (Malone et al., 2017; Buchheit et al., 2023), and applied practice commonly uses a small number of flying sprints once or twice a week. The dose is adjusted for the player's match exposure, recovery and history, and increased progressively.
Q: Should sprint training be linear only?
Linear sprinting remains central for acceleration and maximal velocity, and adaptations appear to be trajectory-specific, so curvilinear runs and sprints after changes of direction contribute to the forms of speed used in matches (Solleiro-Duran et al., 2025). A mixture is reasonable, with the proportion adapted to position and to the demands of the player's role.
Q: Where in the week should sprint sessions be placed?
Maximal-speed exposure about two days before the match has been associated with fewer match hamstring injuries (Buchheit et al., 2023), and accelerations and heavier resisted work can be positioned earlier in the week when players are fresher. Strength sessions are often scheduled the day after sprint-specific work (Haugen et al., 2019). Fixture congestion and travel require adjustments, and the plan should be revised with the staff's monitoring data.
References
Bramah, C., Rhodes, S., Clarke-Cornwell, A. and Dos'Santos, T. (2025) 'Sprint running mechanics are associated with hamstring strain injury: a 6-month prospective cohort study of 126 elite male footballers', British Journal of Sports Medicine. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2024-108600.
Buchheit, M., Settembre, M., Hader, K. and McHugh, D. (2023) 'Exposures to near-to-maximal speed running bouts during different turnarounds in elite football: association with match hamstring injuries', Biology of Sport, 40(4), pp. 1057–1067. doi:10.5114/biolsport.2023.125595.
Buchheit, M., Simpson, B.M., Hader, K. and Lacome, M. (2021) 'Occurrences of near-to-maximal speed-running bouts in elite soccer: insights for training prescription and injury mitigation', Science and Medicine in Football, 5(2), pp. 105–110. doi:10.1080/24733938.2020.1802058.
Duhig, S., Shield, A.J., Opar, D., Gabbett, T.J., Ferguson, C. and Williams, M. (2016) 'Effect of high-speed running on hamstring strain injury risk', British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(24), pp. 1536–1540. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2015-095679.
Edouard, P., Mendiguchia, J., Guex, K., Lahti, J., Samozino, P. and Morin, J.B. (2019) 'Sprinting: a potential vaccine for hamstring injury?', Sport Performance & Science Reports, 48.
Fernández-Galván, L.M., Casado, A., García-Ramos, A. and Haff, G.G. (2022) 'Effects of vest and sled resisted sprint training on sprint performance in young soccer players: a systematic review and meta-analysis', Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(7), pp. 2023–2034. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000004255.
Haugen, T., Seiler, S., Sandbakk, Ø. and Tønnessen, E. (2019) 'The training and development of elite sprint performance: an integration of scientific and best practice literature', Sports Medicine – Open, 5, 44. doi:10.1186/s40798-019-0221-0.
Jiménez-Reyes, P., Garcia-Ramos, A., Párraga-Montilla, J.A., Morcillo-Losa, J.A., Cuadrado-Peñafiel, V., Castaño-Zambudio, A., Samozino, P. and Morin, J.B. (2022) 'Seasonal changes in the sprint acceleration force-velocity profile of elite male soccer players', Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1), pp. 70–74. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000003513.
Lahti, J., Huuhka, T., Romero, V., Bezodis, I., Morin, J.B. and Häkkinen, K. (2020) 'Changes in sprint performance and sagittal plane kinematics after heavy resisted sprint training in professional soccer players', PeerJ, 8, e10507. doi:10.7717/peerj.10507.
Malone, S., Roe, M., Doran, D.A., Gabbett, T.J. and Collins, K. (2017) 'High chronic training loads and exposure to bouts of maximal velocity running reduce injury risk in elite Gaelic football', Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20(3), pp. 250–254. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2016.08.005.
Mendiguchia, J., Martinez-Ruiz, E., Morin, J.B., Samozino, P., Edouard, P., Alcaraz, P.E., Esparza-Ros, F. and Mendez-Villanueva, A. (2015) 'Effects of hamstring-emphasized neuromuscular training on strength and sprinting mechanics in football players', Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(6), pp. e621–e629. doi:10.1111/sms.12388.
Morin, J.B., Gimenez, P., Edouard, P., Arnal, P., Jiménez-Reyes, P., Samozino, P., Brughelli, M. and Mendiguchia, J. (2015) 'Sprint acceleration mechanics: the major role of hamstrings in horizontal force production', Frontiers in Physiology, 6, 404. doi:10.3389/fphys.2015.00404.
Myrvang, S. and van den Tillaar, R. (2024) 'The longitudinal effects of resisted and assisted sprint training on sprint kinematics, acceleration, and maximum velocity: a systematic review and meta-analysis', Sports Medicine – Open, 10, 110. doi:10.1186/s40798-024-00777-7.
Schache, A.G., Kim, H.J., Morgan, D.L. and Pandy, M.G. (2010) 'Hamstring muscle forces prior to and immediately following an acute sprinting-related muscle strain injury', Gait & Posture, 32(1), pp. 136–140. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.03.006.
Solleiro-Duran, D., Cidre-Fuentes, P., Rey, E., Baena-Raya, A., Filter, A. and Padrón-Cabo, A. (2025) 'Effects of linear versus curvilinear sprint training on multidirectional speed in young soccer players: a randomized parallel-group trial', Biology of Sport, 42(1), pp. 89–97. doi:10.5114/biolsport.2025.139084.
Antonio Robustelli is the founder of Omniathlete. He is an international high performance consultant and sought-after speaker in the area of Sport Science and Sports Medicine, working all over the world with individual athletes (including participation in the last 5 Olympics) as well as professional teams in soccer, basketball, rugby, baseball since 24 years. Currently serving as Faculty Member and Programme Leader at the National Institute of Sports in India (SAI-NSNIS).
Comments